Who Was in Jerusalem First, Palestinians or Jews: Unraveling the Ancient Roots of the Holy City

The Enduring Question: Who Was in Jerusalem First, Palestinians or Jews?

It’s a question that echoes through centuries, a foundational point of contention in a land steeped in history and conflict: who was in Jerusalem first, Palestinians or Jews? This isn't just an academic debate; for many, it's deeply personal, tied to identity, land, and belonging. I remember a conversation I had years ago with a well-meaning friend who, upon learning I was researching the history of the region, immediately posed this very question, expecting a simple answer. The truth, as I've come to understand it, is far more intricate than a straightforward declaration of who arrived first. It involves layers of migration, settlement, conquest, and the very definition of who constitutes a "Palestinian" or a "Jew" in ancient times. So, to answer directly and concisely: **Jews, through the ancient Israelites, established a significant and continuous presence in Jerusalem centuries before the term "Palestinian" in its modern ethno-national sense emerged. However, the land itself has a long history of diverse inhabitants, and the roots of both Jewish and Arab presence in the region are ancient, albeit with different timelines and complexities of arrival and settlement.**

To truly grasp this, we must delve into the mists of antiquity, examining archaeological evidence, historical texts, and the evolving terminology that shapes our understanding. It’s a journey that requires patience and a willingness to look beyond simplistic narratives. This article aims to provide that in-depth exploration, offering a nuanced perspective that respects the complexities of this deeply contested history. We'll explore the earliest attestations of Jewish presence, the development of the concept of Palestine, and the successive waves of peoples who called this land home.

The Ancient Israelites and the Birth of Jerusalem

The story of the Jews in Jerusalem is inextricably linked to the biblical narrative. According to tradition and historical consensus, the Israelites, led by figures like Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, migrated into Canaan, the land that would later become Israel and Palestine. While the exact timeline of their arrival is debated among scholars, generally placing it in the Bronze Age, the consolidation of their presence and the establishment of a unified kingdom are pivotal.

The biblical account in the Book of Samuel details King David's conquest of Jerusalem around 1000 BCE. He made it the capital of his kingdom, a political and religious center for the unified Israelite nation. His son, Solomon, further cemented its importance by building the First Temple, a monumental structure that became the heart of Jewish religious life. This established a continuous Jewish presence in Jerusalem for centuries, serving as a spiritual and national hub.

Archaeological findings have corroborated aspects of this narrative. Excavations in Jerusalem and surrounding areas have uncovered artifacts and structures dating back to the Iron Age, consistent with the period of the Israelite monarchies. While some details of the biblical accounts are debated, the existence of a significant Israelite civilization centered in Jerusalem during this period is widely accepted by archaeologists and historians.

The Kingdom of Israel, and later Judah, with Jerusalem as its capital, endured for several centuries. This period saw the development of distinct cultural, religious, and political institutions that defined the Jewish people. Even after the Babylonian conquest in 586 BCE, which led to the destruction of the First Temple and the exile of many Jews, a remnant population remained, and the longing for Jerusalem and its Temple persisted.

The Babylonian Exile and the Return

The Babylonian exile marked a turning point. While a significant portion of the Jewish population was forcibly removed, the decree of Cyrus the Great in the mid-6th century BCE allowed many to return and rebuild the Second Temple. This period of Persian rule saw the gradual re-establishment of Jewish life in Judea, with Jerusalem once again serving as a central city. The returnees, though fewer in number than those who had left, reasserted their connection to the land and their holy city.

This return and rebuilding further solidified the narrative of Jewish connection to Jerusalem, a narrative that would sustain them through subsequent periods of foreign domination. The Second Temple period witnessed a flourishing of Jewish scholarship, religious observance, and a distinct cultural identity that continued to revolve around Jerusalem.

The Evolving Identity of "Palestine"

The term "Palestine" itself has a history that predates the modern Palestinian national movement. Its origins can be traced back to the ancient Greeks, who used the term "Palaistine" to refer to the coastal region inhabited by the Philistines, a seafaring people who arrived in the region around the 12th century BCE. The name "Philistine" is thought to be related to the Hebrew word "Peleshet," meaning "invader" or "wanderer."

Herodotus, the Greek historian writing in the 5th century BCE, used the term "Palaistine" to describe the region. Importantly, this was primarily a geographical designation, often encompassing the coastal plain, and not necessarily tied to a specific ethno-national group in the way we understand it today. The Philistines were indeed inhabitants of the land during the time of the ancient Israelites, and they had their own cities and culture, often in conflict with the Israelites.

Over centuries, the term "Palestine" was adopted and used by various empires and rulers to refer to the broader geographical area. The Romans, after crushing the Jewish revolts in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, renamed the province of Judea "Syria Palaestina" in an attempt to sever its Jewish identity. This designation, however, continued to refer to a geographical territory, not a unified Arab or Palestinian nation.

The identity of the inhabitants of this land evolved through successive waves of migration and settlement. Following the Roman period and the decline of the Philistines, various Semitic peoples, including Canaanites and later Arabs, also inhabited the region. The Arab conquests in the 7th century CE brought a significant Arab and Muslim presence, and Arabic became the dominant language and culture in much of the land. Over time, these Arab inhabitants developed a distinct regional identity, and in the modern era, this identity coalesced into what we recognize today as Palestinian.

Who Were the Philistines?

It’s worth briefly clarifying the Philistines. They were not Semitic people like the Canaanites or Israelites. They are believed to have been part of the "Sea Peoples," a confederation of seafaring groups who migrated from the Aegean region around the end of the Bronze Age. They settled along the southern coast of Canaan, establishing five city-states: Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron. They had a significant impact on the region, both culturally and militarily, and were often adversaries of the early Israelites. Their presence is documented in biblical texts, most famously through the story of Samson and Goliath.

However, the Philistines as a distinct people eventually assimilated into the broader population of the region. Their language died out, and their cultural influence waned. The name "Palestine," derived from their name, persisted as a geographical descriptor, but the Philistines themselves were no longer a distinct entity. It's crucial to understand that the modern Palestinian identity is not directly descended from the ancient Philistines, though the name of their land is.

Continuous Jewish Presence vs. Early Arab Settlement

Herein lies a crucial distinction: the nature and continuity of presence. The ancient Israelites, and later Jews, established Jerusalem as their capital and religious center. Despite periods of exile and diaspora, there was always a Jewish presence in Jerusalem and the surrounding land. This presence was not always dominant in terms of political power, especially during periods of foreign rule, but it remained a locus of religious and cultural identity.

The Arab presence in the region is also ancient. Arab tribes have historically inhabited the Arabian Peninsula and migrated into neighboring lands, including Canaan. Following the Islamic conquests in the 7th century CE, Arab rule and Arab Muslim culture became dominant in the region. This led to a significant increase in Arab settlement and the gradual Arabization and Islamization of the land.

So, while various Semitic peoples, including ancestors of modern Arabs, were present in the land for millennia, the establishment of Jerusalem as a distinct, central capital and religious heartland for the Jewish people predates the emergence of a distinct Arab or "Palestinian" ethno-national identity in that region. The Arab inhabitants of the land, who eventually formed the modern Palestinian identity, developed their distinctiveness over centuries of living in the region, particularly after the Arab conquests. Their presence in Jerusalem and the land is also ancient and deeply rooted, but the timeline of Jerusalem's establishment as a *capital* and *religious center* for the Jewish people precedes the consolidation of a distinct Arab identity in that specific geographical and political context.

The Roman and Byzantine Eras

During the Roman period, after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, Jewish presence in Jerusalem was significantly reduced, and Jews were even forbidden from entering the city. However, Jewish communities continued to exist in other parts of Judea and in the wider diaspora, maintaining their religious and cultural ties to Jerusalem. The land itself continued to be populated by various groups, including a growing number of Christians and the existing Semitic populations.

The Byzantine era saw Christianity become the dominant religion. Jerusalem became a major Christian pilgrimage site, and the construction of churches and monasteries began. While Jews were largely excluded from Jerusalem, they remained in other parts of the land, and their religious scholarship continued to flourish, particularly in places like Tiberias. The term "Palestine" was widely used by the Byzantines to refer to the region.

During this period, Arab tribes, particularly in the desert regions, were also present. The agricultural and urban centers were populated by a mix of Semitic peoples, including those who would form the basis of the later Arab population of Palestine.

The Islamic Conquests and the Arabization of the Land

The arrival of the Arab armies in the 7th century CE marked a profound shift. Under the Rashidun Caliphate, Jerusalem was conquered in 638 CE. This ushered in centuries of Muslim rule and a significant increase in Arab settlement. Arabic became the administrative language, and Islam became the dominant religion. Jerusalem, though now under Muslim rule, retained its sanctity for Jews and Christians, with important holy sites for all three Abrahamic faiths.

During this period, a distinct Arab identity began to solidify across the Levant, including in the region of Palestine. The inhabitants of the land, who were primarily Semitic in origin, increasingly adopted Arab language, culture, and religion. This process of Arabization and Islamization was gradual but profound, shaping the demographic and cultural landscape of the region for centuries to come.

The presence of Jews in Jerusalem and the land also continued during this period, though often as a religious minority. They were allowed to practice their religion and maintain their communities, but they did not hold political power. Synagogues existed, and religious scholarship continued. The narrative of Jewish exile and a longing for return remained a powerful force within Jewish communities worldwide.

Jerusalem Under Different Empires

It's essential to view Jerusalem's history through the lens of its rulers and the populations that flourished under them.

Period	Dominant Rulers	Key Populations	Jerusalem's Status
Early Bronze Age - Iron Age (c. 3000-586 BCE)	Canaanites, Israelites (United Monarchy, Divided Kingdoms)	Canaanites, Israelites (Jews)	City of Jebusites, Capital of Israel/Judah, Religious Center for Jews
Babylonian Exile (586-538 BCE)	Babylonians	Judean Exiles (in Babylon), Remnant population in Judea	Destroyed, Center of exile
Persian Period (538-332 BCE)	Persians	Returning Jews, Local Canaanites	Rebuilt, Center of Judean province
Hellenistic Period (332-63 BCE)	Greeks (Ptolemies, Seleucids), Hasmoneans	Jews, Hellenistic settlers	Significant Jewish population, Religious and cultural center
Roman Period (63 BCE - 324 CE)	Romans	Jews, Romans, Greeks, various local populations	Crucial Jewish center (until destruction of Second Temple), later under Roman administration, Jews largely excluded from city after revolts
Byzantine Period (324-638 CE)	Byzantines (Eastern Roman Empire)	Christians, Jews (in specific areas), Samaritans, local Semitic populations	Major Christian pilgrimage site, Jewish presence restricted
Early Islamic Period (638-1099 CE)	Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid Caliphates	Arabs, Muslims, Christians, Jews	Conquered by Arabs, Third holiest city in Islam, Jewish and Christian communities present
Crusader Period (1099-1187 CE)	Crusaders	Franks, Arabs, Jews, Eastern Christians	Conquered by Crusaders, Christian rule, Jewish population expelled or massacred
Ayyubid & Mamluk Periods (1187-1517 CE)	Saladin, Mamluks	Arabs, Muslims, Jews, Christians	Reclaimed by Muslims, Sacred sites restored, Jewish and Christian communities allowed to return and rebuild
Ottoman Period (1517-1917 CE)	Ottomans	Arabs, Turks, Jews, Armenians, Greeks, others	Provincial Ottoman city, Jewish population grew significantly in later centuries, religious and cultural center for various communities
British Mandate (1917-1948 CE)	British	Arabs, Jews, Christians, others	Capital of Mandate territory, increasing Jewish immigration and settlement, rising Arab nationalism

This table illustrates the ebb and flow of power and the diverse populations that have inhabited the land, including Jerusalem. What it consistently shows is the ancient and foundational connection of the Jewish people to Jerusalem as their capital and religious heartland, predating the emergence of a distinct Palestinian national identity tied to that specific city in the same way.

The Rise of Modern Zionism and Palestinian Nationalism

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the emergence of two powerful national movements: Zionism and Palestinian nationalism. Zionism, a political movement advocating for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in their ancestral land, gained momentum due to rising anti-Semitism in Europe and the desire for self-determination.

Concurrently, the Arab population in Palestine, which had been part of larger Arab nationalist aspirations, began to develop a more distinct Palestinian identity. This was partly a response to the growing Jewish presence and the perceived threat to their land and way of life, and partly a natural evolution of regional identity under Ottoman and later British rule.

The British Mandate for Palestine, established after World War I, proved to be a critical period. The Balfour Declaration of 1917, which expressed British support for "the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people," fueled Zionist aspirations. However, it also created significant anxiety and resistance among the Arab population.

During this period, there was a marked increase in Jewish immigration to Palestine, leading to a growth in Jewish settlements and a rise in tensions between the Arab and Jewish communities. The question of who was "first" became even more charged as competing national claims intensified.

From the perspective of the Zionists, their return was a reclamation of an ancient homeland, a return to their historical and spiritual center. From the perspective of the Palestinian Arabs, they were the indigenous population of the land, and the influx of Jewish immigrants, particularly in large numbers, was seen as a displacement and an imposition.

Defining "First"

The complexity of defining "first" is where much of the debate lies. If "first" means the earliest known inhabitants of the geographical region, then various groups, including ancient Semitic peoples who were ancestors of both Jews and Arabs, were present. If "first" means the group that established a capital city and a continuous spiritual and political center, then the Israelites and Jews have a strong claim to Jerusalem dating back millennia.

If "first" refers to the establishment of a distinct ethno-national identity that came to define the majority population of the land in modern times, then the Arab inhabitants who developed into Palestinians have a strong claim to that aspect. However, this doesn't negate the deeper, older historical presence of Jews in Jerusalem.

My own perspective, shaped by studying these histories, is that both narratives hold elements of truth, but they are often framed in a way that seeks to invalidate the other. The Jewish claim to Jerusalem is rooted in millennia of religious, cultural, and historical connection, with the city serving as their capital and spiritual heart for centuries. The Palestinian claim is rooted in centuries of continuous habitation, cultural development, and the formation of a distinct identity in the land. The challenge lies in reconciling these deep, overlapping, and sometimes conflicting historical narratives.

Archaeological Perspectives and Historical Texts

Archaeology offers tangible evidence that helps us understand the historical layers of Jerusalem. Excavations have revealed evidence of settlement dating back to the Chalcolithic period (around the 4th millennium BCE). Early settlements, such as those found in the City of David, indicate a Canaanite presence before the arrival of the Israelites.

The most significant archaeological evidence for an Israelite presence in Jerusalem comes from the Iron Age (roughly 1200-586 BCE), coinciding with the period of the Israelite kingdoms. Discoveries like the Pool of Siloam, fortifications, and inscriptions provide physical links to this era. The existence of these structures and artifacts strongly supports the biblical narrative of Jerusalem as a significant Israelite and later Judean city.

From the perspective of Arab settlement, archaeological evidence points to a gradual Arab presence in the region, particularly increasing after the 7th-century conquests. While Arab tribes lived in the broader Levant for centuries, the widespread Arabization and settlement of the area we now call Palestine intensified during the Islamic caliphates. Evidence includes the construction of mosques, Arab-style settlements, and the prevalence of Arabic inscriptions.

Historical texts, both ancient and contemporary, are crucial. The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) is replete with accounts of the Israelites' connection to Jerusalem, their conquest of it, and its role as their capital. While viewed as a religious text, many scholars use it as a historical source, cross-referencing its accounts with archaeological findings.

Ancient Greek and Roman historians also mention the region and its inhabitants. Herodotus' use of "Palaistine" is an example. Later Roman and Byzantine sources document the various populations and administrative divisions of the land. Arab historical chronicles from the Islamic era describe the conquest of Jerusalem and the subsequent establishment of Muslim rule, detailing the lives and governance of the diverse communities within the city.

What the Evidence Suggests

The archaeological and textual evidence, when considered together, paints a picture of layered history. It strongly suggests:

• Early Canaanite presence: The land that encompasses Jerusalem was inhabited by Canaanite peoples long before the Israelites.

• Ancient Israelite settlement and capital: The Israelites, and subsequently the Jews, established Jerusalem as their capital and religious center around 1000 BCE, creating a continuous and deep historical connection that predates the emergence of a distinct Arab national identity in the region.

• Philistine presence: A distinct group known as the Philistines settled along the coast around the 12th century BCE, giving the region its Greek name, but they were not the ancestors of modern Palestinians.

• Diverse populations throughout history: The land has always been a crossroads, inhabited by various groups, including Amorites, Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, and others, throughout its long history.

• Significant Arab settlement and Arabization: The Arab conquests in the 7th century CE led to a significant increase in Arab presence and the gradual Arabization and Islamization of the land, forming the basis of the modern Palestinian identity.

Therefore, to ask who was "in Jerusalem first" requires careful qualification. The ancient Israelites established Jerusalem as their capital city, creating a continuous Jewish presence there for well over a millennium before the term "Palestinian" emerged in its modern ethno-national sense. However, the land itself was inhabited by earlier peoples, and the Arab presence, which evolved into the Palestinian identity, is also ancient and deeply rooted in the broader region.

The Nuances of Identity and Belonging

Understanding this history requires grappling with the fluidity of identity. Who is a "Palestinian"? Who is a "Jew"? These are not static categories. Jewish identity evolved from ancient Israelite tribal affiliations to a complex religious, cultural, and national identity forged through millennia of shared history, scripture, and diaspora.

Similarly, Palestinian identity is a product of centuries of life in the land, influenced by Canaanite, Arab, and other cultures, solidified by shared experiences, language, and a distinct relationship to the land. The modern Palestinian national movement, as a distinct political force, emerged in the 20th century, but its roots go back to the Arab inhabitants who have lived in the region for over a millennium.

It’s also vital to acknowledge that the land has historically been home to many peoples, including Christians, Samaritans, and various other ethnic and religious groups, all of whom have contributed to its rich tapestry. The simplification of the narrative to a binary of "Palestinian" versus "Jew" often overlooks this complex historical reality.

The Concept of "Indigenous"

The term "indigenous" is often invoked in this debate. Both Jews and Palestinians can claim a form of indigeneity, depending on how the term is defined and the historical period being referenced.

• Jewish claim to indigeneity: The ancient Israelites are considered indigenous to the land of Canaan, the biblical Eretz Israel. Their historical connection to Jerusalem as their capital city is ancient and foundational to their identity. While diaspora and immigration have been part of Jewish history, the return to their ancestral homeland is often framed as a return of an indigenous people.

• Palestinian claim to indigeneity: The Arab inhabitants of Palestine, whose ancestors lived in the region for centuries and who developed a distinct cultural and national identity over time, also hold a strong claim to indigeneity. They are the people who have lived on and cultivated the land for generations, forming the majority population for many centuries preceding the modern era.

The difficulty arises when these claims are pitted against each other as mutually exclusive. History is rarely so neat. It's a continuous process of migration, settlement, and cultural development. The challenge in the modern context is how to acknowledge and respect the deep historical connections and claims of both peoples to the same land.

Frequently Asked Questions

When did Jews first settle in Jerusalem?

The establishment of Jerusalem as a significant settlement and later capital by the ancient Israelites is traditionally dated to the reign of King David, around 1000 BCE. Before David, the city was known as Jebus and was inhabited by the Jebusites, a Canaanite people. Archaeological evidence supports significant Israelite presence and urban development in Jerusalem from the Iron Age onwards, coinciding with the biblical accounts of the Israelite monarchy.

This period marks the beginning of Jerusalem's role as the central political and religious hub for the Jewish people. Even after periods of conquest and exile, including the Babylonian destruction of the First Temple and the Roman destruction of the Second Temple, a Jewish presence, however diminished or dispersed, persisted in Jerusalem and the surrounding region. This sustained connection over millennia is a cornerstone of the Jewish historical narrative and claim to the city.

When did Arabs first settle in the region that is now Palestine?

Arab tribes have inhabited the Arabian Peninsula and surrounding regions, including parts of the Levant, for millennia. However, the significant and widespread settlement of Arabs in the region of Palestine, leading to its Arabization and Islamization, primarily began with the Islamic conquests in the 7th century CE. Arab armies conquered the region from the Byzantine Empire, and this led to a substantial influx of Arab peoples and culture.

Over the subsequent centuries, the indigenous Semitic populations of Palestine increasingly adopted Arabic language, culture, and Islam, contributing to the formation of a distinct Arab identity in the land. While the presence of Arab tribes in the broader Levant is ancient, their consolidation as the primary demographic and cultural force in the region now known as Palestine is linked to the early Islamic caliphates. This process established the deep historical roots of the Arab population in Palestine, which evolved into the modern Palestinian identity.

What is the significance of the term "Palestine" historically?

The term "Palestine" has a long and evolving history. It is believed to derive from the name of the Philistines, a seafaring people who settled in the southern coastal region of Canaan around the 12th century BCE. The Greek historian Herodotus used the term "Palaistine" in the 5th century BCE to refer to this coastal area. Over time, the term expanded to encompass a broader geographical area of the southern Levant.

The Romans, after suppressing Jewish revolts in the 2nd century CE, officially renamed the province of Judea as "Syria Palaestina." This was partly an attempt to sever the region's Jewish identity, but the name persisted as a geographical designation under various empires, including the Byzantines and later the Ottomans. For much of its history, "Palestine" was primarily a geographical label rather than the name of a distinct nation-state with a unified political identity. The development of a distinct Palestinian ethno-national identity is a more modern phenomenon, solidifying particularly in the 20th century in response to historical and political developments.

Does archaeology support a continuous Jewish presence in Jerusalem?

Yes, archaeology provides substantial evidence for a continuous, albeit sometimes diminished, Jewish presence in Jerusalem and the surrounding Judean hills throughout history. While the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE led to significant disruptions and a decrease in Jewish presence within the city walls for periods, archaeological findings indicate that Jewish communities persisted in the region.

Excavations have uncovered ancient synagogues, Jewish burial sites (like those found on the Mount of Olives), and epigraphic evidence such as inscriptions and ossuaries dating from Roman and later periods that attest to the continued Jewish presence. Furthermore, Jewish religious and scholarly centers continued to operate in various parts of the land, maintaining a connection to Jerusalem and its historical significance. While Jerusalem's status as a Jewish capital and its Jewish population fluctuated under various foreign rulers, the deep historical and religious ties, supported by archaeological remains, are undeniable.

How did the Arab conquest in the 7th century CE affect Jerusalem and the region?

The Arab conquest of Jerusalem in 638 CE under the Rashidun Caliphate marked a pivotal moment in the city's history. It brought the region under Muslim rule, ushering in a new era of Islamic governance, culture, and demographics. While the city had been a major center for Christianity under Byzantine rule, it now became significant for Islam as well, with the construction of the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount (Haram al-Sharif), making it the third holiest city in Islam.

The conquest led to an increase in Arab settlement and the gradual Arabization and Islamization of the population. Arabic became the dominant language of administration, and Islam became the prevailing religion. However, the Muslim rulers generally allowed Jewish and Christian communities to remain, albeit with certain restrictions and dhimmi status. This period solidified the Arab character of the region and its administrative centers, including Jerusalem, while acknowledging the historical significance and presence of Jewish and Christian communities.

Conclusion: A Shared History, Competing Narratives

The question of who was in Jerusalem first, Palestinians or Jews, is not a simple matter of declaring a single victor. It is a question that probes the very nature of historical claims, identity, and belonging. The evidence overwhelmingly suggests that ancient Israelites, the ancestors of modern Jews, established Jerusalem as their capital and spiritual center around 1000 BCE, creating a profound and enduring connection that predates the emergence of a distinct Palestinian national identity.

However, the land itself has a long and complex history, populated by various peoples over millennia. The Arab presence in the region is also ancient, and their settlement and cultural ascendancy, particularly following the 7th-century conquests, laid the foundations for the modern Palestinian identity. Both peoples have deep historical roots in the land and in Jerusalem.

Understanding this history requires acknowledging the layers of settlement, conquest, and cultural evolution. It necessitates moving beyond simplistic "who was first" narratives that aim to invalidate the other's claims. The reality is a shared, albeit often contentious, history. The Jewish claim to Jerusalem is rooted in its ancient role as their capital and religious heart. The Palestinian claim is rooted in centuries of habitation, development, and the formation of a distinct identity in the land.

The challenge for the present and future lies in finding a way to navigate these deep historical narratives and competing claims with mutual recognition and respect. The quest for peace and a just resolution in this deeply contested region hinges on a nuanced understanding of its multifaceted past, acknowledging the historical depth of both Jewish and Palestinian connection to Jerusalem and the Holy Land.