Who Did Zeno Marry? Unraveling the Marital Life of the Renowned Philosopher

For many, the name Zeno conjures images of ancient Greek philosophy, particularly his foundational contributions to Stoicism. Yet, a common question that often arises for those delving deeper into his life is: Who did Zeno marry? The simple and direct answer is that historical records do not indicate that Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, ever married or had children. This might come as a surprise to some, given the typical biographical narratives of historical figures, but Zeno’s life, as far as we can ascertain, seems to have been devoted almost entirely to his philosophical pursuits and teachings.

I remember first encountering Zeno’s name in a college philosophy class. We were dissecting the core tenets of Stoicism – virtue, reason, and living in accordance with nature. The emphasis was squarely on his intellectual legacy, his rigorous ethical framework, and his unique approach to understanding the cosmos. At the time, personal details about his life, such as marital status, were largely absent from the curriculum. It wasn't until I started exploring more niche biographical accounts and scholarly analyses of ancient Greek thinkers that the question of his personal life, including whether he married, began to surface. It’s a question that, while seemingly minor in the grand scheme of his philosophical impact, speaks to the broader human curiosity about the personal lives of influential figures. We often seek to understand the lived experience behind the ideas, hoping to find relatable threads or explanations for their unique contributions.

The prevailing historical consensus suggests that Zeno led a life of philosophical dedication, perhaps even asceticism, that may not have accommodated or prioritized the institution of marriage. While we cannot definitively state he never contemplated marriage, the absence of any credible accounts or traditions linking him to a spouse or family is significant. This focus on his intellectual and spiritual development, rather than domestic life, is a recurring theme in the biographies of many ancient philosophers, and Zeno is no exception. His life story, as it has been preserved, emphasizes his role as a teacher, a sage, and the originator of a profound philosophical system that would influence Western thought for millennia.

The Enigma of Zeno's Personal Life

When we ask, "Who did Zeno marry?", we are essentially probing the more intimate aspects of a philosopher whose primary legacy lies in abstract thought and ethical guidance. The available sources, primarily from later writers like Diogenes Laërtius, Plutarch, and Cicero, offer glimpses into Zeno's life and teachings but are often fragmented and sometimes contradictory regarding personal details. What emerges is a consistent portrayal of a man deeply committed to his philosophical mission. His teachings emphasized self-sufficiency, control over emotions, and a detachment from worldly concerns that might be seen as hindrances to achieving virtue and wisdom. In this context, a traditional married life, with its inherent responsibilities and emotional entanglements, might have been perceived by Zeno, or at least by his biographers, as a distraction from his philosophical path.

It's important to acknowledge that the ancient world had different societal norms and expectations surrounding marriage and family. While marriage was a common and expected part of life for most, philosophical schools often attracted individuals who dedicated themselves to a more unconventional lifestyle. Some philosophers embraced a life of communal living, while others, like Zeno, appear to have prioritized their intellectual and spiritual journeys above all else. The emphasis on *apatheia* (freedom from disturbing passions) and *ataraxia* (tranquility) within Stoicism might have also subtly influenced how a devoted follower like Zeno would have structured his personal life. A life focused on cultivating inner peace and virtue may have naturally steered him away from the complexities and potential emotional turbulence that can accompany marriage and family life.

Furthermore, the historical record often focuses on the public and intellectual achievements of prominent figures. The personal lives of ancient philosophers, unless they directly impacted their philosophical output or were particularly scandalous or noteworthy, were frequently glossed over. Therefore, the absence of information about Zeno’s marital status could simply be a reflection of the historical record’s priorities rather than a definitive statement about his personal choices. However, given the consistent silence across various ancient sources on this matter, the most reasonable conclusion remains that Zeno did not marry.

Key Figures in Zeno's Philosophical Circle

While Zeno himself appears not to have married, his life was undoubtedly enriched by his relationships with students, friends, and intellectual companions. These were the individuals who formed the fabric of his philosophical school and helped to disseminate his ideas. Understanding these relationships offers a different lens through which to view Zeno’s personal life, even in the absence of a spouse. These were the people who shared his intellectual journey, challenged his thinking, and became the first Stoics.

His Students: Zeno attracted a devoted following. His most prominent students included Cleanthes, who succeeded him as head of the Stoic school, and Chrysippus, who is considered the "second founder" of Stoicism for his systematic development of its doctrines. These individuals were more than just disciples; they were integral to the perpetuation and evolution of Stoic thought. Their interactions with Zeno, their debates, and their shared pursuit of wisdom undoubtedly formed the core of his social and intellectual life.
Friends and Patrons: While not explicitly detailed in surviving texts, it is highly probable that Zeno, like any prominent intellectual figure of his time, had a network of friends and possibly patrons who supported his endeavors. Philosophical schools in ancient Greece often relied on the goodwill and resources of the community. These relationships, while perhaps not as intimate as familial ties, would have provided him with companionship and the means to continue his work.
Intellectual Contemporaries: Zeno lived in a vibrant intellectual milieu in Athens. He would have interacted with and been aware of other philosophical schools and thinkers. While the details of these interactions are scarce, they would have formed part of his broader intellectual landscape.

The absence of a wife or children does not mean Zeno was isolated or devoid of meaningful human connection. Instead, his connections appear to have been primarily forged within the crucible of his philosophical academy. The strength and longevity of the Stoic school are a testament to the powerful bonds that must have existed within his community of followers.

Exploring the Stoic Philosophy and Its Implications for Marriage

To truly understand why the question of Zeno's marriage might lead us back to his philosophy, we need to consider the core tenets of Stoicism and how they might relate to personal relationships and domestic life. Stoicism, at its heart, is a philosophy of living a virtuous life, characterized by reason, justice, courage, and temperance. It emphasizes finding happiness and fulfillment within oneself, independent of external circumstances.

Virtue as the Sole Good: For the Stoics, virtue was the only true good. External things like wealth, health, reputation, and even relationships, while potentially preferred, were considered indifferents. They could be used well or poorly, but they did not inherently contribute to or detract from one's virtue or happiness. This perspective could profoundly influence one's approach to marriage. If virtue is the only good, then the pursuit of a spouse or the establishment of a family would only be valuable insofar as it contributed to virtuous living. If it became a source of distraction, anxiety, or vice, then it would be, by Stoic standards, a bad thing.

Living in Accordance with Nature: Stoics believed in a rational order of the universe (Logos) and that humans, as rational beings, should live in harmony with this order. This meant understanding one's place in the cosmos and fulfilling one's duties as a rational creature. While procreation and the raising of a family are natural human activities, the Stoic emphasis was on fulfilling these roles with reason and virtue, without becoming excessively attached to the outcomes. The "duty" aspect of Stoicism, however, did not preclude marriage and family. Indeed, many prominent Stoics, like Seneca and Marcus Aurelius, were married and had children, demonstrating that Stoicism did not necessarily forbid these relationships. However, their approach was characterized by moderation and a recognition of the impermanent nature of all external things.

Control over Emotions (Apatheia): Stoicism famously advocates for *apatheia*, often translated as freedom from passions. This doesn't mean being emotionless, but rather being free from destructive emotions like fear, excessive grief, lust, and anger. Marriage and family life can be potent sources of strong emotions, both positive and negative. A Stoic approaching marriage would aim to experience love and affection without becoming enslaved by them, to face loss without succumbing to despair, and to manage the inevitable conflicts with equanimity. It’s possible that Zeno, in his early, formative years of the school, placed a particularly strong emphasis on detachment, perhaps leading him to forgo marriage entirely as a way to embody this principle most purely. Or, perhaps, his personal disposition simply made him less inclined towards such relationships.

Cosmopolitanism: Stoics saw themselves as citizens of the world. Their ethical framework extended beyond family and city-state to encompass all humanity. This broad perspective might have led some, including potentially Zeno, to feel that their primary allegiance and focus should be on this larger human community and the rational order of the universe, rather than on the more localized and personal bonds of marriage and family.

While these Stoic principles offer a philosophical framework that *could* lead one to choose a life without marriage, it's crucial not to overstate this. Many Stoics embraced marriage and family, viewing them as natural duties to be performed virtuously. The fact that Zeno’s biography is conspicuously silent on the matter of marriage, while his students like Cleanthes and Chrysippus, who continued his work, are also not widely documented as married men (though Cleanthes is sometimes mentioned as unmarried or married to a certain Phileta), suggests that perhaps the early Stoic emphasis, under Zeno’s direct guidance, leaned more towards a life of dedicated, perhaps even singular, philosophical pursuit.

The Legacy of Zeno: More Than Just Marital Status

Ultimately, the question "Who did Zeno marry?" serves as a gateway to understanding the broader biographical context of a pivotal figure in philosophical history. While the lack of evidence for a marriage might seem like a biographical void, it also underscores the singular focus Zeno likely placed on establishing and propagating Stoicism. His impact wasn't diminished by a lack of personal progeny; rather, it was amplified by the intellectual progeny he fostered – the generations of Stoic thinkers and adherents who carried his teachings forward.

The enduring relevance of Stoicism speaks volumes about the power of Zeno's ideas. His emphasis on resilience, ethical conduct, and finding inner peace continues to resonate in the modern world, offering practical guidance for navigating life’s challenges. Whether he was married or not has little bearing on the wisdom contained within his teachings on logic, physics, and ethics. His legacy is cemented in the philosophical principles he established and the school he founded, which continues to inspire and influence people to this day. My own reflection on this is that while we are naturally curious about the personal lives of historical figures, it's the enduring impact of their ideas that truly defines their significance. Zeno’s life, devoted to wisdom and virtue, serves as a powerful example of intellectual and spiritual commitment, regardless of his marital status.

Did Zeno Have Children?

Following the same line of reasoning as his marital status, there is no historical record or credible tradition that suggests Zeno of Citium had children. The ancient biographical accounts that detail his life, his teachings, and his school are conspicuously silent on any offspring. If Zeno had indeed fathered children, it would likely have been mentioned by later biographers, especially if these children were also involved in philosophical pursuits or held any significant social standing. The focus remains, almost exclusively, on his intellectual contributions and his role as the founder of Stoicism.

The world of ancient philosophy was diverse. Some philosophers had families, while others, like Zeno, appear to have dedicated their lives wholly to their studies and the dissemination of their ideas. For instance, figures like Plato, while not known to have married, were deeply involved in intellectual communities. Others, like Socrates, had a wife (Xantippe) and children, and his family life is often depicted, sometimes humorously, in dialogues. Zeno’s story, by contrast, seems to be one of singular devotion to philosophy. This doesn't imply a lack of personal fulfillment or connection, but rather a different prioritization of life’s pursuits.

It’s also worth considering the nature of philosophical schools in antiquity. These were often more than just academic institutions; they were communities built around shared intellectual and ethical ideals. Zeno’s primary “family,” in a sense, could be considered his school – the students and colleagues who gathered to learn from him and engage in philosophical dialogue. The continuation of Stoicism through his students, particularly Cleanthes and Chrysippus, demonstrates a form of intellectual inheritance and legacy that transcended biological lineage. So, while the answer to "Did Zeno have children?" is almost certainly no, his legacy certainly lives on through his intellectual descendants.

Reasons for the Lack of Information on Zeno's Family Life

The scarcity of information regarding Zeno's marital status and whether he had children can be attributed to several factors inherent in the way history and biography were recorded in the ancient world, as well as the specific circumstances of Zeno's life and the nature of his philosophy.

Focus on Intellectual and Public Life: Ancient biographers and historians often prioritized the public achievements and intellectual contributions of notable figures. The personal lives of philosophers, unless they directly influenced their work or were exceptionally noteworthy (e.g., dramatic events, significant scandals), were frequently secondary. Zeno's primary claim to fame is, of course, his founding of Stoicism. Therefore, accounts of his life would naturally gravitate towards his philosophical doctrines, his teachings, and the establishment of his school.
Nature of Philosophical Schools: Philosophical schools in ancient Greece often functioned as self-contained communities. The relationships within these schools, between master and students, and among students themselves, were paramount. These intellectual and communal bonds might have been considered more significant in the historical record than conventional family ties for figures dedicated to such intense philosophical pursuits.
Personal Disposition and Philosophical Choices: As a founder of a philosophy that emphasized self-sufficiency, control over passions, and a focus on internal virtue, Zeno might have personally chosen a life that did not involve marriage or children, or at least, he may not have seen them as central to his philosophical mission. While Stoicism did not inherently forbid marriage, the emphasis on detachment from externals could have led some, perhaps Zeno himself, to find such commitments less conducive to their chosen path.
Survival of Texts: The historical record is always incomplete. Many ancient texts have been lost over time. While we have substantial information about Zeno's philosophy, the more intimate details of his personal life might have been contained in works that have not survived. Diogenes Laërtius's "Lives of Eminent Philosophers," a primary source for Zeno's biography, is itself a compilation from earlier, sometimes lost, sources. It's possible that earlier accounts might have contained more personal details that were omitted or lost in later compilations.
Idealized Portrayal: Biographers might have consciously or unconsciously idealized Zeno, presenting him as a sage whose life was wholly devoted to philosophy, untroubled by the complexities of domestic life. This portrayal would serve to enhance his image as a model of Stoic virtue.

In essence, the absence of information about Zeno marrying or having children is not necessarily proof that he didn't, but it strongly suggests that if he did, these aspects of his life were not considered significant enough by contemporary or later chroniclers to warrant detailed mention. The prevailing narrative emphasizes his intellectual legacy, and it is within this context that his personal life is understood.

Zeno's Relationships: A Community of Thinkers

While the question "Who did Zeno marry?" might lead to a straightforward, albeit perhaps unsatisfying, answer of "no one," it opens the door to exploring the nature of his relationships, which were undoubtedly rich and meaningful, albeit not in the traditional marital sense. Zeno was the founder of a major philosophical school, and such an endeavor necessitates deep and complex human interactions. His life was, by all accounts, intensely social within the context of his philosophical community.

The Stoic School as a Family: For Zeno, his students were not merely passive recipients of his wisdom; they were active participants in a shared intellectual pursuit. The Stoic school, founded in Athens, became a vibrant hub of philosophical inquiry. Diogenes Laërtius describes how Zeno taught in the Stoa Poikile, the Painted Porch, from which the school derived its name. This was not a solitary pursuit. He gathered disciples around him, engaged in dialectical debates, and fostered an environment of intellectual camaraderie. In this sense, the school itself functioned as a kind of extended family, bound by shared ideals and the pursuit of virtue.

Key Disciples and Their Significance: Zeno’s most prominent students played crucial roles in the development and perpetuation of Stoicism.

Cleanthes of Assos: Cleanthes succeeded Zeno as the head of the Stoic school. He is known for his theological interpretations of Stoicism and his "Hymn to Zeus," a powerful prayer that embodies Stoic reverence for divine providence. His loyalty to Zeno's teachings and his leadership ensured the continuity of the school.
Chrysippus of Soli: Often regarded as the second founder of Stoicism, Chrysippus was instrumental in systematizing and defending Stoic doctrines. He wrote extensively, though most of his works are lost, and is credited with developing much of the logic and ethical theory that became central to Stoicism. His intellectual rigor and prolific output were essential in solidifying the school's philosophical foundations.
Other Students: While Cleanthes and Chrysippus are the most famous, Zeno had numerous other students who contributed to the Stoic movement. These individuals, through their own intellectual journeys and their continued association with the school, formed a network of philosophical discourse that extended far beyond Zeno himself.

These relationships highlight a different form of connection and legacy. It was a legacy built not on biological lineage, but on intellectual transmission and the cultivation of shared values. Zeno's influence flowed through his teachings and the community he fostered, creating a profound and lasting impact on Western thought.

Mentorship and Guidance: The role of a philosopher like Zeno was not just to impart knowledge but to guide individuals in living a virtuous life. This involved personal mentorship, offering advice, and shaping the character of his students. Such relationships can be as deep and meaningful as any familial bond, characterized by trust, respect, and a shared commitment to personal growth. The dedication of his students, who carried on his teachings for generations, is a testament to the strength of these connections.

So, when we ask "Who did Zeno marry?", the answer might be a simple negative, but the richer understanding comes from recognizing the profound and influential relationships he cultivated within his philosophical community. His intellectual offspring, his devoted students, were the true inheritors of his legacy, and their bonds formed the core of his personal world.

Zeno's Life in Athens: A Setting for Philosophical Growth

Zeno of Citium’s decision to settle in Athens and establish the Stoic school was a pivotal moment not only for him but for the history of Western philosophy. Athens, in the late 4th and early 3rd centuries BCE, was a vibrant intellectual and cultural center, a crucible where philosophical ideas could flourish. The city offered a unique environment that likely shaped Zeno’s life and his philosophical outlook, perhaps even influencing his personal choices regarding marriage.

The Agora and Public Discourse: The Athenian Agora, the central public space, was a place for commerce, politics, and crucially, philosophical debate. Zeno, by establishing his school in the Stoa Poikile, placed himself at the heart of this intellectual ferment. He was not an isolated recluse but a public figure engaging with the intellectual currents of his time. This public engagement would have been a significant part of his life, potentially occupying much of his time and energy, leaving less room or inclination for domestic life.

Influence of Other Philosophical Schools: Athens was already home to established philosophical traditions, notably Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum. Zeno's Stoicism emerged in dialogue with, and often in contrast to, these preceding schools. The intellectual competition and cross-pollination of ideas were intense. Zeno had to establish his distinct philosophical system, developing his physics, logic, and ethics in a way that offered a compelling alternative. This intellectual struggle and innovation would have been a consuming passion, a primary focus of his adult life.

The Social Structure of Ancient Athens: While Athens was a democracy, it also had a distinct social hierarchy and expectations. Marriage and the continuation of family lines were generally important, particularly for citizens. However, philosophical communities often existed somewhat apart from mainstream societal structures, attracting individuals who were deeply committed to intellectual or spiritual pursuits. For a philosopher like Zeno, who was originally from Cyprus and an outsider in Athens, his identity and purpose became inextricably linked to his philosophical mission rather than to traditional Athenian social roles like husband or father.

The Ideal of the Philosopher-Sage: The image of the philosopher as a sage dedicated to wisdom and virtue was a powerful one in ancient Greece. This ideal often emphasized detachment from worldly concerns and a singular focus on understanding the cosmos and living rightly. Zeno, as the originator of a philosophy that would become synonymous with resilience and inner strength, may have consciously or unconsciously embodied this ideal in his own life, prioritizing a life of intellectual rigor and philosophical exploration above personal domestic arrangements. The lack of mention of a wife or children in his biography aligns with this portrayal of a philosopher wholly devoted to his calling.

The intellectual dynamism of Athens provided the perfect backdrop for Zeno’s life’s work. His decision to teach publicly, to engage with other thinkers, and to build a school from the ground up likely consumed his energies and shaped his life in ways that left little room or apparent desire for a conventional married life. His legacy is thus deeply intertwined with the very fabric of Athenian intellectual history.

Frequently Asked Questions About Zeno and His Personal Life

How can we be so sure Zeno never married?

The certainty that Zeno never married stems from the consistent lack of evidence across multiple ancient sources. Primary biographical accounts, such as those compiled by Diogenes Laërtius, Plutarch, and Cicero, who drew on earlier traditions, all focus on Zeno's philosophical teachings, his founding of the Stoic school, and his intellectual achievements. There is no mention of a wife, a marriage ceremony, or any domestic arrangements associated with him. If Zeno had been married, especially as the founder of such a prominent school, it would likely have been a notable detail recorded by these historians and philosophers. The silence of these sources, when taken collectively and considering their efforts to provide comprehensive biographical information about key figures, is highly persuasive. It suggests that either he did not marry, or if he did, it was so inconsequential or brief that it was not deemed worthy of historical mention by those who chronicled his life and legacy.

Why is Zeno’s marital status considered important by some?

The inquiry into Zeno's marital status, while seemingly a minor biographical detail, is important for several intertwined reasons. Firstly, it speaks to our general human curiosity about the lives of influential figures. We often seek to understand the personal context behind their ideas, believing that their lived experiences might shed light on their philosophies. For instance, if a philosopher advocating for detachment from worldly affairs was also personally detached from familial responsibilities, it might be seen as an embodiment of their teachings. Secondly, in the context of ancient Greek society, marriage and procreation were often seen as fundamental aspects of civic and personal duty. Exploring whether Zeno adhered to or deviated from these norms can offer insights into his personal choices and his dedication to his philosophical path. Thirdly, it helps in constructing a more complete biographical picture, moving beyond just his intellectual output to consider the person behind the philosophy. While his marital status doesn't diminish his philosophical contributions, understanding it contributes to a more nuanced historical portrayal of Zeno of Citium and the early Stoic movement.

If Zeno didn't marry, how did Stoicism continue to be passed down?

The continuation of Stoicism was not reliant on biological lineage but on intellectual and pedagogical transmission. Zeno’s primary method of ensuring the perpetuation of his philosophy was through establishing and nurturing his school. He actively taught and mentored students, imparting his doctrines and ethical principles. These students, in turn, became teachers themselves, forming a robust lineage of Stoic thinkers. As mentioned earlier, Cleanthes succeeded Zeno as the head of the school, followed by Chrysippus, who is credited with systematizing Stoic philosophy. This academic succession ensured that Zeno's ideas were not only preserved but also elaborated upon and defended. The Stoic school functioned as a living tradition, with knowledge and values passed down through rigorous teaching, debate, and the training of new generations of philosophers. This intellectual inheritance, rather than biological, is the cornerstone of how Stoicism endured for centuries.

Does Zeno’s personal life invalidate his Stoic teachings?

Absolutely not. Zeno’s personal life, or the lack thereof concerning marriage, does not invalidate his Stoic teachings in any way. The efficacy and truth of philosophical doctrines are assessed by their internal coherence, their logical soundness, and their practical application, not by the marital status of their originator. Stoicism offers a framework for living a virtuous, rational, and resilient life. Its principles regarding virtue, reason, duty, and the control of one's inner life are valuable regardless of whether Zeno himself was married or had children. In fact, many prominent Stoics who came after Zeno, such as Seneca, Epictetus (who was born a slave and later freed), and Marcus Aurelius (who was an emperor), were married and had families, demonstrating that Stoicism is compatible with various life circumstances. Their writings and lives show how one can apply Stoic principles within the context of marriage, family, and societal responsibilities. Therefore, Zeno’s personal choices, or the lack of specific information about them, are separate from the enduring power and relevance of the philosophical system he founded.

Were there other prominent Stoics who also did not marry?

While many prominent Stoics did marry and engage in family life, the early days of the Stoic school, directly under Zeno's influence, might have seen a stronger emphasis on a life dedicated solely to philosophical practice. As discussed, Zeno himself is not recorded as having married. His successor, Cleanthes, is often described as unmarried, although historical details are sparse. Chrysippus, the third head of the school and a crucial figure in its development, is not widely documented as married either. However, as Stoicism developed and spread, its application to various aspects of life became more evident. Later figures like Seneca, a wealthy statesman and advisor, was married, though his marital life was complex. Marcus Aurelius, the Roman Emperor, was famously married to Faustina the Younger and had many children. The fact that some early Stoic leaders might have lived lives of celibacy or singlehood, while later adherents embraced marriage and family, highlights the evolving interpretation and application of Stoic principles within different social contexts and personal dispositions. It suggests that while Stoicism provides a framework for ethical living applicable to all, the specific life choices of its practitioners could vary significantly.

Conclusion: Zeno's Enduring Legacy Beyond Marriage

In the grand tapestry of ancient philosophy, Zeno of Citium stands as a monumental figure, the founder of Stoicism, a philosophical system that continues to resonate through millennia. The question "Who did Zeno marry?" often arises from a natural human desire to connect with the personal lives of those whose ideas have shaped our world. However, the historical record offers a clear, albeit perhaps unexpected, answer: there is no evidence to suggest that Zeno of Citium ever married or had children. His life, as preserved by ancient sources, appears to have been one of singular devotion to his philosophical mission.

This absence of a spouse or family in biographical accounts does not diminish Zeno’s impact. Instead, it underscores the profound dedication he likely had to establishing and propagating Stoicism. His intellectual contributions – his rigorous ethical framework, his insights into physics and logic, and his emphasis on virtue, reason, and living in accordance with nature – are his true legacy. The Stoic school he founded became his intellectual progeny, nurturing generations of thinkers and practitioners who carried his wisdom forward.

My own journey in exploring Zeno's life has reinforced the idea that while personal details can be intriguing, it is the enduring power of ideas that truly defines a philosopher's significance. Zeno's teachings offer timeless guidance on resilience, inner peace, and ethical conduct, values that remain profoundly relevant in our complex modern world. Whether he was a husband or father is secondary to the profound influence he exerted through his philosophical insights and the enduring tradition he initiated. His life serves as a powerful testament to the impact one individual can have through sheer intellectual force and unwavering commitment to a vision of how to live a good and meaningful life.

Who Did Zeno Marry? Unraveling the Marital Life of the Renowned Philosopher