Which Kingdom Defeated the Egyptians in the End: Unraveling the Persian Conquest

I remember a time, not so long ago, when I was absolutely fascinated by ancient civilizations. I'd spend hours poring over books, imagining pharaohs and pyramids, the mighty Nile, and the grandeur of Egypt. The idea of Egypt's eventual decline and defeat was always a bit of a mystery, a shadow cast over its otherwise seemingly invincible image. So, when the question "Which kingdom defeated the Egyptians in the end?" comes up, it sparks a deep curiosity, a desire to understand how such a storied civilization, a beacon of power for millennia, finally succumbed to an external force. The answer, as history often reveals, is rarely simple, but for the period often considered the "end" of Egypt's independent pharaonic rule, the answer points decisively towards the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

This wasn't a swift, one-time event, mind you. Egypt’s history is a long and winding road, punctuated by periods of foreign domination and resurgence. However, the decisive conquest that marked a significant turning point, ushering in an era where Egyptian independence was largely lost for centuries, was indeed orchestrated by the Persians. Specifically, it was under the leadership of Cyrus the Great, and more definitively, his successor Cambyses II, that the Egyptian New Kingdom's final independent phase was brought to a dramatic close.

The Egyptians, with their rich cultural heritage and sophisticated political structures, had weathered many storms throughout their existence. They had repelled invaders, absorbed foreign influences, and even ruled vast territories themselves. Yet, the rise of the Persian Empire in the 6th century BCE presented a formidable, perhaps unprecedented, challenge. This was an empire built on military might, astute administration, and an insatiable appetite for expansion, a different kind of power than Egypt had typically faced. The question of which kingdom defeated the Egyptians in the end requires us to delve into the specific circumstances of this pivotal confrontation.

The Rise of the Achaemenid Persian Empire: A New Global Power

Before we can fully appreciate how the Persians managed to defeat the Egyptians, it's crucial to understand the sheer scale and ambition of the Achaemenid Empire. Emerging from the arid plains of Persia, this empire, founded by Cyrus the Great around 550 BCE, rapidly grew into the largest empire the world had yet seen. Cyrus, a military genius and a shrewd diplomat, conquered the Median Empire, Lydia (home of the legendary King Croesus), and the Neo-Babylonian Empire, all within a few decades. His successors, particularly Cambyses II and Darius the Great, continued this expansionist agenda, consolidating their vast dominion.

What made the Achaemenids so effective was their organizational prowess. They weren't just conquerors; they were empire-builders. They established a sophisticated network of roads (the Royal Road being the most famous), a standardized coinage, and a system of satrapies (provinces) governed by appointed officials, often with a degree of local autonomy, as long as tribute and loyalty were maintained. This administrative structure allowed them to manage their vast territories effectively, integrating diverse peoples and cultures under Persian rule.

Their military machine was also incredibly potent. They employed a diverse array of troops from across their empire, including the famous "Immortals" – an elite Persian infantry unit. Their tactics often involved overwhelming numbers, effective cavalry, and siege warfare. They were a force that had to be reckoned with, and by the mid-6th century BCE, they had surrounded Egypt, controlling the lands to its east and north.

Egypt on the Eve of Conquest: A Kingdom in Decline?

Egypt, by the time the Persians arrived, was not the unassailable power it had been in its golden ages. The Late Period of Egyptian history (roughly 664–332 BCE) was characterized by periods of independence interspersed with foreign rule. The 26th Dynasty, known as the Saite Dynasty, had managed to restore a degree of Egyptian glory and autonomy after the Assyrian invasions. Psamtik I and his successors worked to revive ancient traditions, promote trade, and strengthen Egypt's position in the Near East. They were skilled diplomats, often playing off rival powers like Babylon and Lydia against each other.

However, internal divisions and the growing might of the Persian Empire created a precarious situation. The Saite pharaohs were aware of the Persian threat, and there were instances of Egyptian involvement in anti-Persian coalitions, such as during the reign of Amasis II. Amasis, for instance, formed alliances with Lydia and Sparta and maintained a strong navy, attempting to secure Egypt's borders and influence in the Aegean. He was a capable ruler who presided over a period of prosperity and cultural revival.

Yet, these efforts were ultimately insufficient to halt the inexorable advance of the Achaemenids. The vast resources and military might of the Persian Empire were a different league from the powers Egypt had previously contended with. The question of which kingdom defeated the Egyptians in the end hinges on understanding this power imbalance and the specific events that led to the Persian takeover.

The First Persian Conquest: Cambyses II and the Battle of Pelusium

The definitive end of native Egyptian rule for a significant period came with the invasion led by Cambyses II, son of Cyrus the Great, in 525 BCE. This campaign is a crucial event when answering which kingdom defeated the Egyptians in the end.

Cambyses II inherited a vast empire from his father and was determined to add Egypt to its already extensive holdings. The pretext for invasion is often cited as a dispute over succession or alleged mistreatment of Persian envoys, though the underlying motivation was clearly imperial expansion. The Egyptian king at the time was Psamtik III, who had only recently ascended the throne after the death of his father, Amasis II. This proved to be a critical vulnerability for Egypt.

The decisive confrontation occurred at the Battle of Pelusium, a strategically important city on Egypt's eastern frontier. Ancient sources, most notably Herodotus, provide vivid, albeit sometimes embellished, accounts of this battle. Herodotus famously suggests that the Persians used cats, dogs, and other sacred animals of Egypt as shields, knowing the Egyptians would be loath to harm them. While this specific detail might be a later embellishment or a symbolic representation of Persian disrespect for Egyptian religious beliefs, it underscores the psychological and strategic factors at play.

More realistically, the Persian victory was likely due to superior military organization, troop numbers, and strategic planning. The Egyptian army, though brave, was perhaps not as well-equipped or as unified as the Persian forces. The battle was a decisive Persian victory, leading to the capture of Pelusium and the subsequent fall of Memphis, Egypt's capital.

The Aftermath: Egypt Becomes a Satrapy

Following the victory at Pelusium and the capture of Psamtik III (who was later executed), Egypt was incorporated into the Achaemenid Empire as a satrapy, the 27th "dynasty" of Egypt. Cambyses II ruled as pharaoh, adopting Egyptian titulary and customs to legitimize his rule. He presented himself not as a foreign conqueror but as the rightful successor, the one who had "restored order."

This marked a profound shift in Egypt's political landscape. For the first time in its long history, Egypt was not ruled by a native pharaoh, but by a foreign king. While the Persians generally allowed local administration and customs to continue, the ultimate authority now resided in Susa, the Persian capital. This period of Persian rule, known as the First Persian Period (525–404 BCE), saw Egypt functioning as a wealthy province, contributing significantly to the empire's resources and manpower.

Periods of Resurgence and Further Persian Domination

Egypt’s story, however, didn't end with this first conquest. The Egyptians were a proud people, and the desire for independence remained strong. There were several revolts and periods of renewed independence throughout the Achaemenid era.

The first major period of renewed Egyptian rule occurred after the Persians faced internal turmoil. Following the death of Cambyses II and the ensuing instability in the Persian Empire (marked by the usurpation of the throne by the magician Gaumata and its subsequent recapture by Darius the Great), Egypt seized the opportunity. In 404 BCE, under the leadership of Amirtaeus, the Egyptians successfully expelled the Persian forces and re-established native rule, initiating the 28th Dynasty. This marked the end of the First Persian Period.

This period of independence, however, was relatively short-lived. Over the next century, Egypt experienced a succession of dynasties (29th and 30th Dynasties), which saw a resurgence in Egyptian culture, art, and architecture. These rulers, like Nectanebo II, were patrons of the arts and attempted to strengthen Egypt's defenses and alliances. They were determined to maintain their hard-won independence.

Nevertheless, the Achaemenid Empire, under rulers like Artaxerxes III, eventually reasserted its power. In 343 BCE, Artaxerxes III launched a massive invasion of Egypt, decisively defeating the Egyptian forces and reconquering the land. This marked the beginning of the Second Persian Period (343–332 BCE), often referred to as the Second Satrapy.

This second period of Persian rule was harsher than the first. The Persians were determined to prevent any further uprisings, and there are accounts of significant destruction and looting. The native Egyptian dynasties were effectively extinguished. This second period of Persian dominance, however, would prove to be the final chapter of Achaemenid rule over Egypt. The empire itself was soon to face a new, even more formidable conqueror.

The Shadow of Alexander the Great

The stage was set for another seismic shift in power. While the Persian Empire was still a dominant force, its vastness also made it vulnerable. The rise of Macedon under Philip II, and then more dramatically under his son, Alexander the Great, would soon change the geopolitical landscape of the ancient world. Alexander, driven by a desire to conquer the Persian Empire, began his campaign in 334 BCE.

Alexander's campaign was meteoric. He systematically defeated Persian armies in Asia Minor, Syria, and Phoenicia. His invasion of Egypt in 332 BCE was met with little resistance. The Persian satrap, Mazaces, surrendered the wealthy country without a significant fight. Alexander was welcomed by the Egyptians as a liberator, a welcome contrast to the heavy-handed rule of the later Persian pharaohs. He was even hailed as the son of the god Amun by the priests at the Oracle of Siwa, a powerful endorsement that legitimized his rule in the eyes of the Egyptians.

Alexander's conquest marked the end of the Second Persian Period and, in many ways, the end of Egypt's independent pharaonic history. While Ptolemaic rule, established by one of Alexander's generals after his death, saw a revival of Egyptian culture and administration, it was a Hellenistic kingdom, not a native Egyptian one.

Unique Insights: The Cultural and Religious Impact of Persian Rule

Beyond the political and military aspects, it's worth considering the cultural and religious impact of Persian rule. While the Persians, particularly Cambyses II and Darius the Great, generally showed respect for Egyptian traditions and religions (Darius famously commissioned a statue of the Egyptian god Udjahorresnet), their rule was still a foreign imposition.

The Persians introduced their administrative practices, their Aramaic language (which became a language of administration across the empire), and their bureaucratic systems. This had a long-term effect on Egypt's internal administration and its integration into the wider Achaemenid world. For example, Darius the Great implemented a more organized system of taxation and provincial administration, which, while potentially burdensome, also contributed to Egypt's economic integration within the empire.

Crucially, the Persian conquest disrupted the millennia-old tradition of native pharaonic rule. The pharaoh was not just a king but also a divine intermediary. The introduction of foreign rulers, even those who adopted Egyptian customs and titles, fundamentally altered this sacred relationship. This psychological impact, perhaps more than any other, marked a profound break with Egypt's past.

It's also important to note that the "end" of Egyptian independence wasn't a single, definitive event but a protracted process. The Persian conquests were interspersed with periods of Egyptian resurgence, demonstrating the resilience of Egyptian identity and the will to self-governance. However, the question of which kingdom defeated the Egyptians in the end, in the sense of establishing a long-lasting foreign dominion that effectively ended the pharaonic era, points squarely to the Achaemenid Persians.

Key Figures and Events in the Persian Conquest of Egypt

To solidify our understanding, let's outline the key figures and events when discussing which kingdom defeated the Egyptians in the end:

Cyrus the Great: While he didn't conquer Egypt directly, his founding and expansion of the Achaemenid Empire laid the groundwork for his son Cambyses II's invasion. He established the Persian Empire as the dominant power in the Near East.
Amasis II: A strong Egyptian pharaoh of the 26th Dynasty who ruled before the Persian conquest. He attempted to strengthen Egypt's position through alliances and military preparedness, but ultimately his efforts were insufficient against the Persian tide.
Psamtik III: The son and successor of Amasis II, his short reign coincided with the Persian invasion. He led the Egyptian forces at the Battle of Pelusium and was subsequently captured and executed by Cambyses II.
Cambyses II: Son of Cyrus the Great, he led the Achaemenid forces in the invasion of Egypt in 525 BCE. His victory at Pelusium led to the fall of Memphis and the incorporation of Egypt into the Persian Empire as a satrapy.
Battle of Pelusium (525 BCE): The decisive battle where Cambyses II's Persian army defeated the Egyptian forces, paving the way for the conquest of Egypt.
Darius the Great: Cambyses II's successor, he continued to rule Egypt as a satrapy and is credited with significant administrative reforms that integrated Egypt more firmly into the Persian Empire.
Artaxerxes III: Led the Persian reconquest of Egypt in 343 BCE after a period of Egyptian independence, initiating the Second Persian Period.
Alexander the Great: His conquest of the Persian Empire in 332 BCE effectively ended Persian rule over Egypt and ushered in the Hellenistic period.

The Legacy of Persian Rule and its Place in Egyptian History

The question "Which kingdom defeated the Egyptians in the end" highlights a pivotal moment, but it's essential to understand that this defeat was not an endpoint for Egyptian civilization. Instead, it became part of its long and complex history.

The Persian period, though marked by foreign rule, also saw continuities. Egyptian temples continued to be built and maintained, religious practices persisted, and the Egyptian language remained in use for religious and local administrative purposes. The Persians, in many ways, sought to govern Egypt as a functioning part of their empire rather than simply as a conquered territory to be exploited and abandoned.

The administrative structures introduced or consolidated by the Persians, such as the division of the country into satrapies and the development of taxation systems, left a lasting imprint. These elements were later adapted and incorporated into subsequent administrative systems, including those of the Ptolemies and the Romans.

Furthermore, the very experience of being part of a vast empire like Persia, with its interactions with other cultures and peoples, broadened Egypt's horizons. It was no longer an isolated kingdom but an integral part of a major world power, influencing and being influenced by the diverse cultures within the Achaemenid realm.

When considering "which kingdom defeated the Egyptians in the end," it's crucial to avoid a simplistic narrative of victimhood. Egypt, even under foreign rule, often retained a strong sense of cultural identity. The periods of revolt and independence demonstrate this enduring spirit. The Persians ultimately succeeded because they possessed the military might and organizational capacity to overcome a weakened but still proud Egyptian state.

Common Misconceptions and Nuances

It's worth addressing a few common misconceptions:

The "end" is not absolute: As noted, Egypt had periods of independence even after the initial Persian conquest. The question implies a definitive, final defeat, but history is rarely so clear-cut. The Persian conquests were significant turning points that ended the New Kingdom's independent trajectory and ushered in prolonged periods of foreign rule, but Egyptian civilization itself continued to evolve and endure.
Not a single event: The defeat of the Egyptians by the Persians was not a single battle or a one-time event. It was a process that unfolded over decades, marked by conquest, revolts, and reconquests.
Cultural continuity: Despite foreign rule, Egyptian culture, religion, and traditions showed remarkable resilience and continuity. The temples were still active, and the priesthood remained influential.

Therefore, while the Achaemenid Persian Empire is the correct answer to which kingdom *ultimately* defeated the Egyptians in the sense of establishing a lasting dominion that ended the pharaonic era, it's important to appreciate the complexities and nuances of this historical period.

Frequently Asked Questions About the End of Egyptian Independence

How did the Persian Empire manage to defeat the Egyptians?

The Achaemenid Persian Empire's success in defeating the Egyptians was a multifaceted achievement, stemming from a combination of factors that outweighed Egypt's strengths during the Late Period. Firstly, the sheer military might and organizational prowess of the Persian army were paramount. The Persians had cultivated a highly disciplined and well-trained fighting force, drawing upon the diverse martial traditions of their vast empire. Their tactics often involved overwhelming numbers, effective cavalry maneuvers, and sophisticated siege warfare techniques, which were honed through their conquests of powerful kingdoms like Lydia and Babylon. This presented a formidable challenge to the Egyptian forces, which, while valiant, may not have possessed the same scale of resources or unified command structure.

Secondly, strategic leadership played a crucial role. Cyrus the Great, the founder of the empire, laid the groundwork by establishing Persia as a preeminent power in the region. His son, Cambyses II, who led the initial invasion of Egypt, demonstrated strategic acumen by targeting key locations like Pelusium, a vital gateway to the Nile Delta. The Battle of Pelusium itself, though its exact details are debated, was a decisive victory that crippled Egyptian defenses. Furthermore, the Persians were adept at exploiting political vulnerabilities. The accession of a young and perhaps less experienced pharaoh, Psamtik III, immediately prior to Cambyses II's invasion, presented a window of opportunity that the Persians expertly seized. They understood that internal instability or a lack of established leadership could weaken an opponent's resolve and capacity to resist.

Beyond battlefield tactics, the Persians were also masters of logistics and imperial administration. They could mobilize and sustain large armies over long distances, a testament to their advanced organizational capabilities. This allowed them to project power effectively into Egypt. Finally, while not solely a military factor, the psychological impact of facing an expanding, seemingly invincible empire cannot be discounted. The Achaemenid Empire had already conquered many of the known powers of the ancient Near East, likely instilling a sense of awe and perhaps even dread in potential adversaries.

Why did Egypt fall to the Persians when it had such a long and glorious history?

Egypt's fall to the Persians, despite its millennia-long and glorious history, can be attributed to a confluence of evolving geopolitical dynamics and internal Egyptian circumstances. For much of its ancient past, Egypt had either been the dominant regional power or had faced adversaries that were primarily regional threats. It had developed sophisticated defenses and had the capacity to mobilize vast resources in times of crisis. However, the rise of the Achaemenid Persian Empire represented a new paradigm in imperial power. This was an empire of unprecedented size and military capacity, spanning continents and incorporating a vast array of peoples and resources. Egypt, while still a wealthy and culturally rich nation, was no longer the sole superpower in its immediate vicinity; it was now a regional power facing a global one.

Moreover, the Late Period of Egyptian history, while marked by periods of impressive revival (like the 26th Dynasty), was also characterized by recurrent foreign interventions and periods of fragmentation. Egypt had experienced Assyrian domination and had only recently regained full independence. This history of external influence and internal struggles meant that by the time of the Persian invasion, Egypt might not have been as politically unified or as militarily robust as it had been in its dynastic heyday. The constant need to contend with regional rivals like Babylon and the growing threat from Persia itself may have drained resources and attention.

The Persian conquest under Cambyses II occurred during a moment of transition for Egypt, with a new and potentially less experienced ruler on the throne. This provided a strategic advantage to the Persians, who were experienced in exploiting moments of succession or instability. While Egyptian society retained its deep cultural roots and religious traditions, the political and military structures, when faced with the sheer scale and efficiency of the Achaemenid war machine, proved insufficient to maintain long-term independence.

What happened to the Egyptian pharaohs after the Persian conquest?

The fate of the Egyptian pharaohs after the Persian conquest varied depending on the specific period and individual. After Cambyses II's initial victory in 525 BCE, the reigning pharaoh, Psamtik III, was captured. According to historical accounts, he was initially treated with a degree of respect by Cambyses II, perhaps to legitimize his own rule as a new pharaoh. However, he was later executed by Cambyses II, likely to eliminate any potential rival or symbol of Egyptian resistance. This marked the end of the 26th Dynasty and the loss of native Egyptian rule.

During the First Persian Period (525–404 BCE), Egypt was ruled by Persian satraps, with Persian kings (like Cambyses II, Darius the Great, and Xerxes) assuming the title of pharaoh. However, there were no native Egyptian pharaohs in power during this time. The situation changed with the successful Egyptian revolt in 404 BCE, which ushered in the 28th Dynasty, led by Amirtaeus. This marked a period of renewed native rule, with pharaohs from the 28th, 29th, and 30th Dynasties reigning independently.

This era of independence was brought to an end in 343 BCE when the Persian king Artaxerxes III launched a devastating invasion and reconquered Egypt, initiating the Second Persian Period. The last native Egyptian pharaoh, Nectanebo II of the 30th Dynasty, was forced to flee the country. He is believed to have fled to Upper Egypt and possibly further south, but his ultimate fate is uncertain. Some legends suggest he may have lived out his days in exile or even attempted to rally forces abroad. With Nectanebo II's flight, native Egyptian pharaonic rule effectively ended.

Following the Second Persian conquest, Egypt was once again ruled by Persian satraps, with Persian kings claiming the pharaonic title. This period was short-lived, however, as Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BCE. After Alexander, Egypt was ruled by the Ptolemaic Dynasty, founded by Ptolemy I Soter, one of Alexander's generals. While the Ptolemies adopted many Egyptian customs and titles and were considered pharaohs by the Egyptians, they were of Greek Macedonian descent, not native Egyptians.

Did the Persians destroy Egyptian culture and religion?

The question of whether the Persians destroyed Egyptian culture and religion is complex and requires a nuanced answer. Generally, the Achaemenid Persians, particularly Darius the Great, adopted a policy of relative tolerance towards the cultures and religions of their subject peoples. This was a strategic approach to empire-building, aiming to foster loyalty and minimize resistance by respecting local traditions.

In Egypt, this meant that Persian rulers often presented themselves as legitimate pharaohs, adopting Egyptian titulary and patronizing Egyptian temples. For instance, Cambyses II, upon conquering Egypt, was depicted in Egyptian fashion and participated in religious ceremonies. Darius the Great went further; he commissioned the statue of the Egyptian god Udjahorresnet, who had served him as a physician and advisor, and supported the rebuilding of Egyptian temples. He also commissioned a decree written in Egyptian hieroglyphs that details his respect for Egyptian traditions and his efforts to restore order. This suggests a genuine effort to integrate into Egyptian society and governance, rather than a policy of outright destruction.

However, it would be an oversimplification to say there was no impact or disruption. The Persian conquest, especially the second one under Artaxerxes III in 343 BCE, was a violent affair. Historical accounts suggest that there was significant destruction and looting of temples during this reconquest, aimed at crushing any lingering Egyptian resistance and asserting Persian dominance. This period was perceived as more oppressive than the first Persian rule.

Furthermore, the very act of foreign rule, regardless of tolerance, represented a break in the continuity of native pharaonic leadership, which was deeply intertwined with Egyptian religious ideology. The introduction of Persian administrative systems and the increased use of Aramaic as an administrative language also had an impact on Egyptian society. While core religious practices and cultural expressions largely endured, the political and social landscape was undeniably altered, and in certain instances, as with the Second Persian conquest, there was significant damage.

What was the significance of the Persian defeat of Egypt for the broader ancient world?

The Persian defeat of Egypt held significant implications for the broader ancient world, marking a pivotal moment in the geopolitical landscape of the 6th and 4th centuries BCE.

Firstly, it solidified the Achaemenid Persian Empire's position as the dominant superpower of its era. By conquering Egypt, the Persians added one of the wealthiest and most historically significant regions of the ancient world to their already vast dominion. This expansion cemented their control over the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa, stretching their influence from the borders of India to the Aegean Sea. This immense territorial control had profound economic and political consequences, shaping trade routes, diplomatic relations, and the balance of power for generations.

Secondly, the conquest contributed to the eventual confrontations between the Persian Empire and the Greek city-states. As Persia expanded westward, it inevitably came into contact and conflict with the burgeoning Greek world. The Persian invasions of Greece in the early 5th century BCE, famously culminating in battles like Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis, were direct consequences of Persia's imperial ambitions, which had been significantly bolstered by the acquisition of Egypt and its resources. The Greek resistance against Persia, in turn, played a crucial role in shaping the development of Western civilization.

Thirdly, the Persian control over Egypt disrupted the traditional political order of the ancient Near East. Egypt had been a major independent power for millennia, and its incorporation into the Persian Empire meant that a significant independent actor was now under foreign rule. This shifted the dynamics of diplomacy and warfare in the region. The periods of Egyptian resurgence and subsequent reconquest by Persia also highlight the constant flux of power and the inherent instability that could exist even within seemingly monolithic empires.

Finally, the Persian conquest, and the subsequent Hellenistic conquest by Alexander the Great, contributed to a gradual process of cultural exchange and syncretism. While Persian rule was a form of foreign domination, it also facilitated the movement of people, ideas, and technologies across the vast empire. The later Greek and Roman periods in Egypt built upon these foundations, leading to a rich fusion of cultures that continued to influence the Mediterranean world for centuries.

Conclusion: The Persian Empire as the Victor

In conclusion, when asking "Which kingdom defeated the Egyptians in the end," the most accurate and significant answer points to the Achaemenid Persian Empire. While Egypt experienced periods of resurgence and its history is one of remarkable resilience, the Persian conquests under Cambyses II in 525 BCE and later under Artaxerxes III in 343 BCE decisively ended native Egyptian pharaonic rule for extended periods, incorporating Egypt into a vast foreign empire.

This was not merely a military victory; it was the culmination of the Achaemenids' imperial ambition, their military superiority, and their astute organizational skills. The fall of Egypt to the Persians marked a profound turning point, ushering in an era where the ancient land of the pharaohs became a province within a larger, unprecedented empire, a precursor to the subsequent conquests by Alexander the Great and the rise of Hellenistic and Roman rule.

The legacy of this period is complex, marked by both the imposition of foreign rule and the enduring strength of Egyptian culture. Yet, in the direct question of which kingdom achieved the decisive defeat that fundamentally altered Egypt's independent trajectory, the answer remains the mighty Persian Empire.

Which Kingdom Defeated the Egyptians in the End: Unraveling the Persian Conquest