How Did Japan Treat Christians? A Historical Exploration of Persecution and Resilience

How Did Japan Treat Christians?

Japan's treatment of Christians, particularly during the Edo period, was largely characterized by severe persecution and a determined effort to eradicate the religion. This period, spanning from the early 17th century to the mid-19th century, saw the Tokugawa shogunate implement policies aimed at enforcing religious homogeneity and maintaining political stability, with Christianity being viewed as a direct threat to both. The initial welcome extended to missionaries and their faith by some daimyo in the late 16th century, driven by a desire for trade and new technologies, quickly evaporated as the shogunate consolidated power. This dramatic shift from tentative acceptance to brutal suppression is a crucial aspect of understanding Japan's historical relationship with Christianity.

As someone who has delved deeply into the history of religious movements and their societal impacts, I find Japan's approach to Christianity particularly compelling. It’s a stark reminder of how quickly fear and political expediency can override initial openness. The story isn't a simple one of uniform cruelty; it involved complex motivations, varying degrees of severity across regions and time, and, remarkably, the enduring resilience of those who clung to their faith in the face of unimaginable hardship. Exploring how Japan treated Christians requires us to look beyond broad strokes and examine the nuanced realities of this historical dynamic.

The Early Encounters: A Glimmer of Acceptance

The arrival of Christianity in Japan, primarily through the efforts of Jesuit missionaries like Francis Xavier in the mid-16th century, was initially met with curiosity and, in some quarters, considerable enthusiasm. Japan was undergoing a period of intense civil war, the Sengoku period, where regional warlords, or daimyo, were vying for power. These daimyo, eager for any advantage, saw potential benefits in associating with the foreign traders who accompanied the missionaries. The Portuguese, and later the Dutch and English, brought not only new religious ideas but also firearms, advanced shipbuilding techniques, and access to lucrative trade routes. For some daimyo, embracing Christianity was a strategic move to gain favor with these foreign powers and acquire superior weaponry.

Francis Xavier, arriving in 1549, established his first mission in Kagoshima. His approach was characterized by an effort to understand Japanese culture and adapt his message accordingly. He learned some Japanese and presented Christianity in a way that, he hoped, would resonate with the local populace. His early successes, though limited in numbers, were significant. He managed to baptize a few individuals, including some of samurai rank, which lent a certain prestige to the new faith. Following Xavier, other missionaries, including those from the Society of Jesus, Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustinians, continued to arrive, spreading the faith across different regions of Japan.

It's important to note that the reception of Christianity was not uniform. While some daimyo actively supported missionaries and Christian communities, others remained indifferent or outright hostile. The Buddhist establishment, which had deeply entrenched roots and significant political influence, often viewed Christianity with suspicion and animosity. However, in the chaos of the Sengoku period, their opposition was often overshadowed by the military and political struggles between the daimyo.

The peak of Christian influence in Japan occurred around the turn of the 17th century. By then, it's estimated that hundreds of thousands of Japanese had converted to Christianity. Major cities like Nagasaki became significant Christian centers, boasting churches and a thriving community. The city of Arima, ruled by the Christian daimyo Omura Sumitada, even sent a delegation of young Japanese nobles, known as the Tenshō Embassy, to Europe in 1582. This embassy, led by four young men, met with Pope Gregory XIII in Rome and was a remarkable testament to the early impact and perceived legitimacy of Christianity within certain Japanese circles.

The Seeds of Suspicion: Shogunate Consolidation and Foreign Influence

The unification of Japan under Toyotomi Hideyoshi and subsequently the Tokugawa shogunate marked a pivotal turning point in the treatment of Christians. As stability returned and a centralized government began to assert its authority, the religious landscape shifted dramatically. The Tokugawa regime, particularly under Tokugawa Ieyasu and his successors, prioritized national unity and the eradication of any potential threat to their power. Christianity, with its transnational affiliations and its challenge to established social and political hierarchies, increasingly came to be viewed through a lens of suspicion and danger.

Several factors contributed to this escalating concern. Firstly, the missionaries' allegiance to the Pope in Rome, a foreign authority, was seen as incompatible with the shogunate's desire for absolute sovereignty. Secondly, there were increasing reports from foreign sources, particularly the Spanish in the Philippines and the Dutch, about the role of Christianity in instigating revolts and undermining colonial powers in Southeast Asia. These reports fueled fears that Japanese Christians might similarly engage in seditious activities or provide a foothold for foreign intervention.

The perceived arrogance and proselytizing zeal of some missionaries also played a role. While many missionaries were dedicated and respectful, others were seen as dismissive of Japanese customs and traditions, further alienating the authorities. The growing number of converts, including influential samurai, was also a source of concern for the shogunate, which sought to maintain a rigid social order where loyalty was to the lord and the state, not to a foreign religious leader.

In 1587, Toyotomi Hideyoshi issued the first significant anti-Christian decree, expelling missionaries. However, this decree was not rigorously enforced initially, and many missionaries continued their work. The situation escalated with the execution of twenty-six Christians in Nagasaki in 1597, including six European missionaries and twenty Japanese converts. This event, known as the "Martyrs of Japan," marked a more overt and brutal phase of persecution, signaling the shogunate's increasing resolve to suppress the faith.

The Great Persecution and the Sakoku Policy

The establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1603 ushered in a period of relative peace and stability but also intensified the suppression of Christianity. The shogunate's primary concern was to prevent any internal dissent or external interference that could destabilize their rule. Christianity, with its foreign origins and its potential to foster loyalties outside the state, was a prime target. The shogunate implemented a series of increasingly severe measures to eradicate the faith.

The Policy of Exclusion: Sakoku and its Impact on Christians

One of the most defining policies of the Tokugawa era, which directly impacted Christians, was the implementation of the sakoku (closed country) policy. Beginning in the 1630s, this policy aimed to severely restrict foreign relations and intercourse with Japan. The stated reasons were multifaceted, including the prevention of foreign influence, particularly the spread of Christianity, and the maintenance of internal order. This policy had profound consequences for the Christian community.

The sakoku policy involved several key measures:

• Expulsion of Foreigners: All foreigners, with the exception of a very small, strictly controlled Dutch and Chinese trading community in Nagasaki, were expelled from Japan. Missionaries were specifically targeted, and any attempting to enter the country risked severe punishment.
• Prohibition of Japanese Travel Abroad: Japanese citizens were forbidden from leaving the country. Those who did and attempted to return faced the death penalty. This effectively cut off any communication or support from overseas Christian communities.
• Banning of Western Books: The importation of Western books, including religious texts, was banned to prevent the dissemination of foreign ideas.
• Mandatory Buddhist Registration: All Japanese households were required to register with a Buddhist temple. This provided a mechanism for the government to monitor the population and identify individuals suspected of adhering to Christianity.

The sakoku policy, while primarily aimed at controlling foreign influence, served as a powerful tool for the suppression of Christianity. By isolating Japan, the shogunate could more effectively control the flow of information and enforce its anti-Christian edicts.

The Methods of Suppression: Humiliation, Torture, and Execution

The Tokugawa shogunate employed a systematic and brutal approach to rooting out Christianity. The goal was not merely to punish existing Christians but to prevent the religion from surviving in any form. The methods employed were designed to instill terror and break the will of converts and potential converts.

• Fumi-e (Image Trampling): This was perhaps one of the most infamous and psychologically tormenting methods used. Suspected Christians were forced to tread upon Christian images, particularly depictions of Christ or the Virgin Mary. Refusal to do so was proof of their faith, leading to torture and execution. This ritual was designed to publicly humiliate and force apostasy.
• Torture: When suspected Christians refused to renounce their faith, they were subjected to various forms of torture. These included severe beatings, starvation, immersion in water, and prolonged confinement in extremely harsh conditions. The aim was to break their resolve and force them to recant.
• Execution: For those who refused to renounce their faith or were found to be actively practicing it, the ultimate punishment was execution. Methods of execution varied but often included beheading, burning at the stake, or crucifixion. Nagasaki, as the primary port of entry for early missionaries and a major Christian center, became a site of numerous executions.
• Family and Community Pressure: The shogunate also leveraged social structures. Informants were encouraged, and families were sometimes pressured to report on their own members. This created an atmosphere of fear and distrust, making it extremely difficult for Christians to practice their faith even in secret.

The persecution was not always uniform across Japan. Regions under more direct shogunate control, like Nagasaki and the surrounding areas, often experienced more intense scrutiny and harsher enforcement. However, the edicts and the general climate of fear permeated the entire country.

The Hidden Christians: Kakure Kirishitan

Despite the relentless persecution, Christianity did not disappear entirely from Japan. A significant and fascinating development was the emergence of the Kakure Kirishitan (hidden Christians). These were individuals and communities who, in order to survive, outwardly conformed to Buddhist or Shinto practices while secretly maintaining their Christian faith and rituals in clandestine ways.

The Kakure Kirishitan developed unique ways to preserve their beliefs:

• Syncretism: They often blended Christian prayers and rituals with elements of Buddhism and Shinto. For example, statues of Kannon, a Buddhist deity, might be subtly modified to resemble the Virgin Mary. Prayers were often adapted to sound like Buddhist chants.
• Oral Tradition: Christian scriptures and teachings were passed down orally from generation to generation. Knowledge of the faith was carefully guarded, and only those deemed trustworthy were initiated into its deeper mysteries.
• Secret Symbols and Rituals: They developed their own secret symbols and rituals. Baptism, for instance, might be performed in secret by a lay leader using rainwater.
• Underground Networks: Despite the risks, small networks of hidden Christians existed, allowing for some limited contact and mutual support.

These hidden Christians maintained their faith for over two centuries, a testament to their deep conviction and their remarkable ability to adapt and survive under extreme pressure. Their existence remained largely unknown to the outside world until the reopening of Japan in the mid-19th century.

The Reopening of Japan and the Rediscovery of Christianity

The arrival of Commodore Matthew Perry's "black ships" in 1853 signaled the end of Japan's long period of isolation. The forced opening of Japan by Western powers brought about significant political and social changes. It also led to the unexpected rediscovery of the hidden Christian communities.

The Discovery of the Kakure Kirishitan

When Western missionaries, primarily from Catholic orders, began returning to Japan in the mid-19th century, they were astonished to find communities that had secretly preserved their Christian faith for generations. The most famous instance of this rediscovery occurred in 1865 in the village of Urakami, near Nagasaki. A French missionary, Father Bernard Petitjean, was approached by a group of individuals who, after long hesitation, revealed their faith. They expressed their devotion to the "Madonna" and asked if Father Petitjean was in possession of her image, a phrase that echoed their secret prayers.

This encounter was a profound moment, revealing the enduring legacy of early Christian evangelization. The hidden Christians, having preserved their faith in isolation, were eager to reconnect with the broader Catholic Church and receive the sacraments from officially ordained priests. This marked the beginning of the revival of Christianity in Japan.

Continued, Though Easing, Restrictions

While the sakoku policy was dismantled and foreign powers pressured Japan to allow religious freedom, the legacy of anti-Christian sentiment did not vanish overnight. For a period after the Meiji Restoration (1868), which overthrew the Tokugawa shogunate, the official stance on Christianity remained ambiguous. While the prohibition of Christianity was eventually lifted in 1873, the deeply ingrained societal prejudices and the lingering influence of Shinto and Buddhism meant that Christians still faced discrimination and social ostracism for some time.

New converts often faced difficulties with their families and communities. While legal persecution ceased, social pressure and suspicion could still be significant obstacles. The government's policies in the early Meiji era were complex, often balancing the need to appease Western powers with the desire to maintain national identity and social cohesion. The eventual embrace of religious freedom was a gradual process, driven by both external pressure and internal shifts in Japanese society.

Modern Japan and Christianity

Today, Christianity in Japan represents a small but significant religious minority. The historical persecution has left an indelible mark, but it has also paved the way for a more diverse religious landscape. The challenges faced by Christians in modern Japan are largely those of minority religions in a predominantly secular or culturally Buddhist/Shinto society.

The legacy of the Kakure Kirishitan is a source of fascination and pride for many Japanese Christians. Efforts are ongoing to preserve their unique traditions and to understand the depth of their historical faith. The sites of historical significance, such as the churches and execution grounds in Nagasaki, have become important pilgrimage and historical sites.

The experience of how Japan treated Christians is a powerful historical narrative. It illustrates the complex interplay of religion, politics, and foreign relations. The story of suppression and survival offers profound insights into human resilience and the enduring power of faith in the face of overwhelming adversity.

Frequently Asked Questions About Japan's Treatment of Christians

How did Japan initially treat Christian missionaries?

Initially, during the late 16th century, the treatment of Christian missionaries in Japan was varied but often cautiously welcoming, especially in regions where regional lords (daimyo) were seeking trade and military advantages from European powers like Portugal and Spain. Missionaries, such as Francis Xavier, were allowed to preach and establish churches in some areas. The daimyo saw potential benefits in associating with foreigners who brought advanced weaponry, new technologies, and access to lucrative trade. Some daimyo even converted to Christianity themselves, seeing it as a means to strengthen their position against rivals. However, this period of relative openness was transient. The growing political consolidation under leaders like Toyotomi Hideyoshi and later the Tokugawa shogunate began to shift the perception of Christianity from a potential asset to a destabilizing foreign influence, sowing the seeds for future persecution.

Why did Japan begin persecuting Christians?

Japan began to persecute Christians primarily due to the Tokugawa shogunate's desire to maintain political stability and national unity. Several key factors contributed to this shift:

• Fear of Foreign Interference: The shogunate viewed Christianity as a tool of foreign powers. The allegiance of Japanese Christians to the Pope in Rome, a foreign religious authority, was seen as a potential threat to Japanese sovereignty. Reports of Christian involvement in revolts in other parts of Asia amplified these fears.
• Erosion of Social Order: The shogunate sought to establish a rigid social hierarchy and ensure absolute loyalty to the ruling authority. Christianity, with its emphasis on individual conscience and a higher spiritual allegiance, was perceived as undermining this social order and potentially fostering disloyalty among samurai and commoners.
• Desire for Religious Homogeneity: The Tokugawa regime aimed to create a unified and controllable society. The presence of a foreign religion that challenged established Buddhist and Shinto traditions was seen as a divisive element that needed to be eradicated to ensure peace and stability.
• Control of Trade: The shogunate also sought to control foreign trade and limit its influence. Christianity was often associated with the traders, and suppressing the religion became intertwined with the broader policy of isolating Japan.

These concerns culminated in a series of increasingly severe edicts and policies, leading to widespread persecution and the eventual implementation of the sakoku (closed country) policy.

What were the main methods used by Japan to suppress Christianity?

The Tokugawa shogunate employed a range of brutal and systematic methods to suppress Christianity, aiming to eradicate it completely:

• Fumi-e (Image Trampling): This was a particularly insidious method designed to humiliate and force apostasy. Suspected Christians were compelled to step on Christian images, such as crucifixes or depictions of saints. Refusal to do so was a clear sign of adherence to Christianity and would result in severe punishment.
• Torture: For those who refused to renounce their faith or were caught practicing Christianity, elaborate and cruel torture methods were used. These included prolonged starvation, immersion in water for extended periods, severe beatings, and confinement in cramped, dark cells designed to break their physical and mental resolve.
• Execution: Those who remained steadfast in their faith were executed. Common methods included beheading, burning at the stake, and crucifixion, often carried out publicly to serve as a deterrent to others. Nagasaki, with its significant Christian population, was a frequent site of these executions.
• Informants and Family Pressure: The shogunate encouraged citizens to become informants, offering rewards for reporting suspected Christians. Families were also sometimes pressured to denounce their own members, creating an atmosphere of pervasive fear and distrust that made secret practice extremely difficult.
• The Sakoku Policy: This policy of national isolation, implemented in the 1630s, was crucial in the suppression. By expelling foreigners, forbidding Japanese from leaving the country, and banning Western books, the shogunate effectively cut off any external support or influence for Christianity and enabled more rigorous internal control.
• Mandatory Buddhist Registration: All households were required to register with a local Buddhist temple, providing the government with a mechanism to monitor the population and identify individuals deviating from prescribed religious norms.

These methods were not merely punitive; they were designed to terrorize the population and ensure that the very memory of Christianity would be expunged from Japan.

What were the "Hidden Christians" (Kakure Kirishitan)?

The "Hidden Christians," or Kakure Kirishitan, were Japanese individuals and communities who secretly continued to practice Christianity during the centuries-long period of prohibition (roughly 1614-1873). Facing extreme persecution and the threat of death, these brave individuals outwardly conformed to the dominant Buddhist and Shinto practices while preserving their Christian faith in private and in secret. Their survival is a remarkable testament to their devotion and ingenuity. They developed unique ways to maintain their beliefs:

• Syncretism: They often blended Christian rituals and prayers with elements of Buddhism and Shinto. For instance, they might pray to statues of Buddhist deities like Kannon, which they mentally identified as the Virgin Mary, or adapt Christian prayers to resemble Buddhist chants.
• Oral Tradition: Christian doctrines, prayers, and stories were passed down from generation to generation solely through oral communication. Knowledge was carefully guarded, and initiation into deeper aspects of the faith was a highly selective process.
• Secret Symbols and Rituals: They devised their own hidden symbols and performed secret rituals. Baptism, for example, might be performed by a lay leader using rainwater collected in secret.
• Secluded Worship: Worship services were held in utmost secrecy, often in remote areas, private homes, or hidden chambers, with extreme caution taken to avoid detection.

The existence of these hidden communities remained largely unknown to the outside world until Japan's reopening in the mid-19th century, when some of these groups revealed themselves to returning missionaries. Their legacy is a crucial part of the history of Christianity in Japan.

When was Christianity legalized in Japan?

Christianity was effectively legalized in Japan with the lifting of the prohibition decree in 1873 during the Meiji Restoration period. However, this was a complex and gradual process. While the official ban was removed, societal prejudices and lingering suspicions meant that Christians continued to face discrimination and social ostracism for some time. The Meiji government, influenced by the need to engage with Western powers and revise unequal treaties, gradually moved towards religious tolerance. The constitutional guarantee of freedom of religion for all citizens was established later, but the legal freedom to practice Christianity was largely recognized by the 1870s, marking the end of over two centuries of state-sanctioned persecution.

How many Christians are there in Japan today?

As of recent estimates, Christians constitute a very small minority of Japan's population, typically numbering around 1-2%. This translates to roughly 1 to 2 million individuals. While Christianity has been legally recognized and practiced freely for over a century, its growth has been slow compared to other religious traditions or compared to Christian populations in many Western countries. This is due to a variety of factors, including the deeply ingrained cultural and historical traditions of Shinto and Buddhism, the strong emphasis on social conformity in Japanese society, and the ongoing secularization trends.

What is the legacy of the persecution of Christians in Japan?

The legacy of the persecution of Christians in Japan is profound and multifaceted. It has left an indelible mark on Japanese history, culture, and the development of religious freedom within the nation.

• Resilience and Faith: The survival of the Kakure Kirishitan for over two centuries demonstrates an extraordinary level of faith, resilience, and ingenuity in the face of extreme adversity. Their story is a powerful testament to the human capacity to preserve deeply held beliefs against overwhelming odds.
• Historical Sites and Memory: Places associated with the persecution, such as Nagasaki, have become important historical and pilgrimage sites. Churches like the Oura Church in Nagasaki, built after the reopening of Japan, stand as memorials and symbols of enduring faith. The sites of martyrdom and execution serve as constant reminders of the past.
• Cultural Impact: The historical experience has shaped the perception of Christianity within Japan. While now a legal religion, Christianity is still often viewed as a foreign import, and its adherents can sometimes face subtle social challenges. The narrative of persecution and hidden faith continues to be a source of fascination and study.
• Foundation for Religious Freedom: The struggle for religious freedom, culminating in the eventual legalization of Christianity, laid important groundwork for the development of broader religious tolerance in modern Japan. The eventual acceptance of Christianity contributed to Japan's engagement with the international community.
• Enduring Communities: The descendants of the hidden Christians, and the broader Christian community in Japan today, carry forward the legacy of their ancestors, often with a deep sense of historical connection and pride in their spiritual heritage.

In essence, the legacy is one of both immense suffering and remarkable endurance, shaping the religious and cultural landscape of Japan in ways that continue to be felt today.

The Complexities of Conversion and Power

My own research into historical religious movements consistently highlights how the initial stages of a religion's introduction into a new society are often intertwined with existing power structures and societal dynamics. In Japan's case, the early interactions with Christianity were not purely spiritual endeavors. They were deeply embedded in the political and economic landscape of the late Sengoku and early Edo periods. The desire for European firearms, advanced shipbuilding, and access to global trade routes was a significant motivator for some daimyo who patronized missionaries. This pragmatic approach, driven by the immediate needs of warfare and economic advancement, meant that Christianity was initially embraced not necessarily for its theological merits by the ruling elite, but for the tangible benefits it could confer.

This pragmatic embrace, however, created a vulnerability. As the Tokugawa shogunate consolidated power and sought to centralize control, they viewed this association between foreign religion and regional power with immense suspicion. The concern wasn't just about the souls of the Japanese people, but about the potential for foreign powers to exert influence through religious intermediaries. This fear of "religious colonialism" or foreign subversion became a primary driver for the subsequent, brutal suppression. It's a classic historical pattern: a religion initially adopted for political or economic expediency later becomes a target when the geopolitical landscape shifts and the ruling powers prioritize internal control above all else. The treatment of Christians in Japan exemplifies this dynamic with stark clarity.

Echoes of the Past: Contemporary Christian Life in Japan

While the overt persecution of Christians in Japan ended with the Meiji Restoration, the historical experience has left an enduring, albeit often subtle, influence. Today, Christianity remains a minority religion, making up about 1-2% of the population. However, its presence is significant, and the communities that exist often have a deep connection to their historical roots.

The descendants of the Kakure Kirishitan, for example, continue to grapple with their heritage. Some have reconnected with the Catholic Church, while others maintain their unique, syncretic traditions. The journey of rediscovering and re-engaging with their faith after centuries of secrecy is a complex and ongoing process, marked by both a desire for formal recognition and a deep respect for the traditions passed down through generations.

Furthermore, the historical narrative of persecution and resilience has, in a way, fostered a strong sense of community among Japanese Christians. Facing historical challenges has, paradoxically, helped to solidify their identity and their bonds with one another. While the broader Japanese society may not always fully grasp the historical depth of their struggles, the Christian community itself preserves and shares these stories, ensuring that the sacrifices of the past are not forgotten.

My perspective is that understanding the historical treatment of Christians in Japan is not just an academic exercise. It provides vital context for understanding the current landscape of religion in Japan and the unique position of Christian communities within it. It’s a story that speaks to the enduring power of faith, the complexities of cultural assimilation, and the profound human desire for spiritual freedom.

The Philosophical Underpinnings of Suppression

To truly grasp how Japan treated Christians, it’s crucial to consider the philosophical and ideological frameworks that underpinned the Tokugawa shogunate's policies. The shogunate was heavily influenced by Neo-Confucianism, a dominant intellectual tradition in East Asia that emphasized social harmony, filial piety, hierarchical order, and loyalty to the state. From a Neo-Confucian perspective, Christianity, with its emphasis on individual salvation, a direct relationship with a divine being, and its universalistic claims, presented a radical departure from the established social and ethical norms.

Neo-Confucianism advocated for a society where each person understood and fulfilled their role within a clearly defined hierarchy, from the emperor down to the commoner, and within the family structure. Loyalty was paramount – to one's parents, one's lord, and ultimately, the state. Christianity's insistence that ultimate loyalty belonged to God above all earthly authorities was seen as inherently subversive. The concept of an afterlife and individual judgment was also at odds with the more this-worldly focus of Neo-Confucianism, which prioritized social order and ethical conduct in this life as the path to a harmonious society.

Furthermore, the shogunate actively promoted Shinto and Buddhism as the established religious and cultural frameworks of Japan. These religions, while also subject to state control, were deeply interwoven with Japanese identity and history. Christianity, being foreign in origin and posing a direct challenge to the spiritual and ideological foundations of the nation, was perceived as a foreign contaminant that threatened to unravel the social fabric painstakingly woven by the Neo-Confucian ideology.

The shogunate’s suppression of Christianity was, therefore, not merely a matter of religious intolerance but a deeply ideological crusade to preserve and enforce a particular vision of Japanese society, one rooted in Neo-Confucian principles of order, hierarchy, and loyalty. This philosophical underpinning helps explain the severity and systematic nature of the persecution, as it was seen as a defense of the very essence of Japanese civilization.

Looking Ahead: The Evolving Role of Christianity in Japan

While the question of "how did Japan treat Christians" primarily focuses on historical events, it's impossible to ignore the ongoing evolution of Christianity within Japan. The future role of Christianity in Japan is likely to be shaped by a continuation of current trends: slow but steady growth, increasing engagement with social issues, and a unique blend of global Christianity with Japanese cultural contexts. The experiences of the past, particularly the resilience of the hidden Christians, continue to inform and inspire the Christian community today, offering a rich historical foundation upon which to build for the future.